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Wind, wave, and acoustic observations are used to test a scaling for ambient sound levels in the ocean that is based on wind speed and the degree of surface wave development (at a given wind speed). The focus of this study is acoustic frequencies in the range 1-20 kHz, for which sound is generated by the bubbles injected during surface wave breaking. Traditionally, ambient sound spectra in this frequency range are scaled by wind speed alone. In this study, we investigate a secondary dependence on surface wave development. For any given wind-speed, ambient sound levels are separated into conditions in which waves are 1) actively developing or 2) fully developed. Wave development is quantified using the non-dimensional wave height, a metric commonly used to analyze fetch or duration limitations in wave growth. This simple metric is applicable in both coastal and open ocean environments. Use of the wave development metric to scale sound spectra is first motivated with observations from a brief case study near the island of Jan Mayen (Norwegian Sea), then robustly tested with long time-series observations of winds and waves at Ocean Station Papa (North Pacific Ocean). When waves are actively developing, ambient sound levels are elevated 2-3 dB across the 1-20 kHz frequency range. This result is discussed in the context of sound generation during wave breaking and sound attenuation by persistent bubble layers. 

Abstract Sea ice is a heterogeneous, evolving mosaic of individual floes, varying in spatial scales from meters to tens of kilometers. Both the internal dynamics of the floe mosaic (floe‐floe interactions), and the evolution of floes under ocean and atmospheric forcing (floe‐flow interactions), determine the exchange of heat, momentum, and tracers between the lower atmosphere and upper ocean. Climate models do not represent either of these highly variable interactions. We use a novel, high‐resolution, discrete element modeling framework to examine ice‐ocean boundary layer (IOBL) turbulence within a domain approximately the size of a climate model grid. We show floe‐scale effects could cause a marked increase in the production of fine‐scale three‐dimensional turbulence in the IOBL relative to continuum model approaches, and provide a method of representing that turbulence using bulk parameters related to the spatial variance of the ice and ocean: the floe size distribution and the ocean kinetic energy spectrum.